sociology case study

Case Study: Types, Advantages And Disadvantages

  Case Study: Types, Advantages And Disadvantages 

Case study is both method and tool for research. Case study is the intensive study of a phenomenon, but it gives subjective information rather than objective. It gives detailed knowledge about the phenomena and is not able to generalize beyond the knowledge.

Case studies aim to analyze specific issues within the boundaries of a specific environment, situation or organization. According to its design, case study research method can be divided into three categories: explanatory, descriptive and exploratory.

Explanatory case studies aim to answer ‘how’ or ‘why’ questions with little control on behalf of the researcher over occurrence of events. This type of case study focuses on phenomena within the contexts of real-life situations.

Descriptive case studies aim to analyze the sequence of interpersonal events after a certain amount of time has passed. Case studies belonging to this category usually describe culture or sub-culture, and they attempt to discover the key phenomena.

Exploratory case studies aim to find answers to the questions of ‘what’ or ‘who’. Exploratory case study data collection method is often accompanied by additional data collection method(s) such as interviews, questionnaires, experiments etc.

DEFINITION OF CASE STUDY

The case study or case history method is not a newer thing, but it is a linear descendent of very ancient methods of sociological description and generalization namely, the ‘parable’, the ‘allegory’, the ‘story’ and the ‘novel’.

According to P.V. Young . “A fairly exhaustive study of a person or group is called a life of case history.”

Thus, the case study is more intensive in nature; the field of study is comparatively limited but has more depth in it.

TYPES OF CASE STUDY

Six types of case studies are conducted which are as follows:

Community Studies: The community study is a careful description and analysis of a group of people living together in a particular geographic location in a corporative way. The community study deals with such elements of the community as location, appearance, prevailing economic activity, climate and natural sources, historical development, how the people live, the social structure, goals and life values, an evaluation of the social institutions within the community that meet the human needs etc. Such studies are case studies, with the community serving as the case under investigation.

Casual Comparative Studies: Another type of study seeks to find the answers to the problems through the analysis of casual relationships. What factors seem to be associated with certain occurrences, conditions or types of behaviour? By the methodology of descriptive research, the relative importance of these factors may be investigated.

Activity Analysis: The analysis of the activities or processes that an individual is called upon to perform is important, both in industry and in various types of social agencies. This process of analysis is appropriate in any field of work and at all levels of responsibility. In social system, the roles of superintendent, the principal, the teacher and the custodian have been carefully analyzed to discover what these individuals do and need to be able to do.

Content or Document Analysis: Content analysis, sometimes known as document analysis. Deals with the systematic examination of current records or documents as sources of data. In documentary analysis, the following may be used as sources of data: official records and reports, printed forms, text-books, reference books, letters, autobiographies diaries, pictures, films and cartoons etc . But in using documentary sources, one must bear in mind the fact that data appearing in print is not necessarily trustworthy. This content or document analysis should serve a useful purpose in research, adding important knowledge to a field to study or yielding information that is helpful in evaluating and improving social or educational practices.

A Follow-up Study: A follow-up study investigates individuals who have left an institution after having completed programme, a treatment or a course of study, to know what has been the impact of the institutions and its programme upon them. By examining their status or seeking their opinions, one may get some idea of the adequacy or inadequacy of the institutes programme. Studies of this type enable an institution to evaluate various aspects of its programme in the light of actual results.

Trend Studies: The trend or predictive study is an interesting application of the descriptive method. In essence, it is based upon a longitudinal consideration of recorded data, indicating what has been happening in the past, what does the present situation reveal and on the basis of these data, what will be likely to happen in the future.

Whatever type of case study is to conduct, it’s important to first identify the purpose, goals, and approach for conducting methodologically sound research.

ADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDY

The main points of advantages of case study are given below:

Formation of valid hypothesis: Case study helps in formulating valid hypothesis. Once the various cases are extensively studied and analyze, the researcher can deduce various generalizations, which may be developed into useful hypotheses. It is admitted by all that the study of relevant literature and case study form the only potent sources of hypothesis.

  Useful in framing questionnaires and schedules: Case study is of great help in framing questionnaires, schedules or other forms. When a questionnaire is prepared after thorough case study the peculiarities of the group as well as individual units, become known also the type of response likely to be available, liking and aversions of the people. This helps in getting prompt response.

Sampling: Case study is of help in the stratification of the sample. By studying the individual units the researcher can put them in definite classes or types and thereby facilitate the perfect stratification of the sample.

Location of deviant cases: The case study makes it possible to locate deviant cases. There exists a general tendency to ignore them, but for scientific analysis, they are very important. The analysis of such cases is of valuable help in clarifying the theory itself.

Study of process: In cases where the problem under study constitutes a process and not one incident e.g. courtship process, clique formation etc., case study is the appropriate method as the case data is essential for valid study of such problems.

Enlarges experience: The range of personal experience of the researcher is enlarged by the case study on the other hand in statistical methods a narrow range of topics is selected, and the researcher’s knowledge is restricted to the particular aspect only.

Qualitative analysis in actual situation: Case study enables the establishment of the significance of the recorded data when the individual is alive and later on within the life of the classes of individuals. The researcher has the opportunity to come into contact with different classes of people and he is in a position to watch their life and hear their experiences. This provides him with an opportunity to acquire experiences of such life situations which he is never expected to lead.

This discussion highlights the advantages of the case data in social research. Social scientists developed the techniques to make it more perfect and remove the chances of bias.

LIMITATIONS/DISADVANTAGES OF CASE STUDY METHOD

Subjective bias: Research subjectivity in collecting data for supporting or refuting a particular explanation, personal view of investigation influences the findings and conclusion of the study.

Problem of objectivity: Due to excessive association with the social unit under investigation the researcher may develop self-justificatory data which are far from being factual.

Difficulty in comparison: Because of wide variations among human beings in terms of their response and behaviour, attitudes and values, social setting and circumstances, etc., the researcher actually finds it difficult to trace out two social units which are identical in all respects. This hinders proper comparison of cases.

A time, energy and money consuming method: The preparation of a case history involves a lot of time and expenditure of human energy, therefore, there is every possibility that most of the cases may get stray. Due to such difficulties, only a few researchers can afford to case study method.

Time span: Long time span may be another factor that is likely to distort the information provided by the social unit to the researcher.

Unreliable source material: The two major sources of case study are: Personal documents and life history. But in both these cases, the records or the own experience of the social units may not present a true picture. On the contrary, the social unit may try to suppress his unpleasant facts or add colour to them. As a result, the conclusions drawn do not give a true picture and dependable findings.

Scope for wrong conclusions: The case study is laden with inaccurate observation, wrong inferences, faulty reporting, memory failure, repression or omission of unpleasant facts in an unconscious manner, dramatization of facts, more imaginary description, and difficulty in choosing a case typical of the group. All these problems provide the researcher with every possibility of drawing wrong conclusions and errors.

Case studies are complex because they generally involve multiple sources of data, may include multiple cases within a study and produce large amounts of data for analysis. Researchers from many disciplines use the case study method to build upon theory, to produce new theory, to dispute or challenge theory, to explain a situation, to provide a basis to apply solutions to situations, to explore, or to describe an object or phenomenon. The advantages of the case study method are its applicability to real-life, contemporary, human situations and its public accessibility through written reports. Case study results relate directly to the common readers everyday experience and facilitate an understanding of complex real-life situations.

__________________________________________________________________________

Research Methodology Methods and Techniques~C. R. Kothari (p.113) - Link

Fundamental of Research Methodology and Statistics~Yogesh Kumar Singh (Chapter–10: Case Study Method p. 147) - Link

Social Research Methods: Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches~W. Lawrence Neuman (p.42) - Link

The Basics of Social Research~Earl Babbie (p.280) - Link

Social Science Research Principles, Methods, and Practices~Anol Bhattacherjee (93) - Link

PREPARING A CASE STUDY: A Guide for Designing and Conducting a Case Study for Evaluation Input - Link

A Case in Case Study Methodology - Link

Case Study Method - Link1 & Link 2

Unit-4 Case Study - Link

Case study as a research method - Link

Case_Study~Tanya Sammut-Bonnici and John McGee - Link

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Understanding the Case Study Method in Sociology

Table of Contents

Definition and purpose of case studies, types of case studies, methodological approaches in case studies.

• Advantages of Case Study Methods
• Limitations of Case Study Methods
• Applications of Case Study Methods in Sociology

The case study method is a research strategy often employed in the social sciences, including sociology, to investigate a phenomenon within its real-life context. This approach allows for a deep, multifaceted exploration of complex issues, making it an invaluable tool for sociologists. By focusing on a single case or a small number of cases, researchers can gather detailed and nuanced data, which can then be used to develop or test theories. This essay will provide an overview of the case study method, its applications, advantages, and limitations, and illustrate how it can be used effectively in sociological research.

Understanding Case Studies

A case study is an in-depth examination of a single instance or event—a ‘case’—which could be an individual, group, organization, community, or even a nation. The case study method is not confined to a particular type of data collection or analysis but rather encompasses a variety of techniques to gather comprehensive information about the case in question. This method is particularly useful for studying phenomena in their natural settings, allowing researchers to capture the complexities and intricacies of social life.

Purpose and Importance

The primary purpose of a case study is to gain a deep understanding of the subject under investigation. Case studies are particularly effective in exploring new or under-researched areas where the boundaries between the phenomenon and context are not clearly evident. They enable researchers to explore the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions, providing insights that might not be achievable through other research methods. By focusing on specific instances, case studies can reveal the underlying mechanisms and processes that drive social phenomena, offering rich, qualitative insights that can inform broader sociological theories and practices.

Exploratory Case Studies

Exploratory case studies are conducted to identify research questions and hypotheses for further study. They are often the preliminary step in a research project, providing a basis for developing more detailed research plans. These case studies are useful for gathering initial data and insights, which can help shape the direction of future research.

Descriptive Case Studies

Descriptive case studies aim to provide a detailed, accurate account of the case under investigation. These studies focus on describing the characteristics and context of the case, often with the goal of illustrating the application of theories in real-life scenarios. Descriptive case studies are valuable for presenting a comprehensive picture of the phenomenon, enabling a better understanding of its complexity.

Explanatory Case Studies

Explanatory case studies are used to explore causation and uncover the underlying mechanisms of a phenomenon. These studies seek to explain the ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions, providing insights into the causal relationships and processes at play. Explanatory case studies are particularly useful in testing hypotheses and theories, offering a detailed examination of the factors that contribute to a specific outcome.

Intrinsic Case Studies

Intrinsic case studies are conducted when the researcher has a genuine interest in the case itself, rather than in generalizing findings to other cases. These studies focus on understanding the unique aspects and significance of the specific case, often highlighting its distinctiveness and individuality. Intrinsic case studies are valuable for exploring cases that are particularly unusual or noteworthy, providing insights that might not be applicable to other contexts.

Instrumental Case Studies

Instrumental case studies are conducted to gain a broader understanding of a particular issue or phenomenon. The case is used as a tool to provide insights into a larger question or theory. In these studies, the case itself is of secondary interest, serving as a means to an end. Instrumental case studies are useful for illustrating broader theoretical concepts and for drawing generalizable conclusions from specific instances.

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Case Study Method

• What is Case Study Method

Why Case Study Method?

• Meaning and Definitions of Case Study Method

Characteristics of Case Study Method

• Types of Case Study Method

Steps in Case Study Method

• Advantages and Disadvantages

Introduction

The case study method is one of many research approaches utilized in the social sciences, alongside experiments, surveys, historical analyses, and archival investigations. Unlike broad statistical surveys or comprehensive comparative inquiries, it involves in-depth exploration of a specific research problem. This method excels in narrowing expansive fields of study to manageable examples, enabling researchers to assess the applicability of theories and models to real-world phenomena with limited information available.

Each research method has its own set of advantages and disadvantages, influenced by various factors:

(a) the nature of the research question, (b) the level of control over actual behavioural events, (c) the focus on contemporary versus historical phenomena.

The case study approach is highly effective in providing a nuanced comprehension of intricate issues through thorough contextual examination of a limited set of events or circumstances and their interconnectedness. Researchers utilizing this method can employ diverse methodologies and draw from various sources to investigate a research problem, enriching or complementing existing knowledge from prior research endeavours. Social scientists commonly employ this approach to scrutinize real-world situations, thereby bolstering the application of concepts and theories and advancing methodologies, often furnishing detailed portrayals of specific and uncommon cases.

Nevertheless, this research methodology, particularly when focused on a single or a small number of cases, encounters hurdles in establishing reliability and extrapolating findings to broader populations. Intense concentration on a case may skew researchers’ interpretations, and the design may not facilitate the assessment of causal relationships. Moreover, essential information might be lacking, rendering interpretation challenging, while the selected case may not adequately represent the larger issue under investigation. If a case is chosen for its uniqueness, findings may only be pertinent to that specific instance.

The origin of the case study method is credited to Frederic Leplay, an English philosopher. Herbert Spencer further developed it, and Healey was among the pioneers in advocating for and applying this method in the study of juvenile delinquency. Subsequently, sociologists, anthropologists, ethnologists, and other researchers became intrigued by the use of the case study method to examine various cultures.

      Thorough investigations often involve conducting case studies in genuine settings, allowing researchers to gain authentic insights into the subjects’ nature. These studies rely on information gathered from documents, observations, and interviews, which serve as valuable sources. Generally, case studies are undertaken for three primary purposes:

      1. As Pilot Research: To embark on broader research into creativity, a researcher might commence by examining a few case studies. This initial phase enables them to identify potential trends and establish the most effective methodology for conducting more comprehensive research—a crucial stage often termed as pilot investigation.

      2. To develop new theories: Case studies often spark the development of new psychological theories, stemming from initial explorations or independent case analyses. For example, when studying a businessman’s routines and observing his peak cognitive abilities in the early morning, an observer might hypothesize that early mornings enhance creativity. This hypothesis could then be tested through wider research methods beyond individual case studies.

      3. To challenge traditional theories: Science is an ever-changing domain, constantly adapting to fresh evidence and questioning old assumptions. Throughout history, prevailing scientific beliefs have been overturned, like the once-held notion of a flat Earth with the sun revolving around it. Yet, ongoing research continually corrects such misunderstandings. Case studies offer a means to scrutinize and refine scientific theories. By examining specific instances, researchers can challenge established beliefs. For instance, the common belief that creative individuals often display symptoms of mental illness can be challenged by a case study of a successful businessman who exhibits creativity without any mental health issues.

Moreover, case studies not only challenge existing theories but also pave the way for new ones. Pilot research, for instance, may reveal inconsistencies that prompt a reassessment of prevailing ideas, leading to the development of fresh hypotheses and theories. While not every case study may overturn established scientific paradigms, they are crucial in the ongoing process of scientific inquiry, contributing to the enhancement and expansion of our knowledge.

      Following are the characteristics of case study method:

      1. Small Study Unit: Case study research examines various facets of a small number of chosen cases, which may include individuals, groups, organizations, movements, events, or geographical locations. The information gathered for each case is thorough, varied, and extensive, facilitating thorough analysis. This research method can focus on a particular moment or extend over a period of time.

      2. Qualitative as well as Quantitative: The bulk of case-study inquiries usually lean towards qualitative examination, though this isn’t an absolute norm. Conversely, the majority of cross-case studies, also referred to as non-case research, often embrace quantitative methodologies. Despite their differences, qualitative research and case studies both aim to craft comprehensive depictions grounded in thorough case understanding. Take, for example, Venkatesh’s ethnographic exploration of urban gangs—a case study detailing the dynamics and interactions within a singular gang across eight years in a particular locale of South Chicago.

      3. Intensive Study: Case-study research entails a comprehensive investigation into one or a select few cases, meticulously exploring the nuances of each case and its contextual backdrop. Its objective is to dissect both the particular elements within each case and the wider situational variables. This methodology enables the correlation between individual behaviors on a micro scale and the larger frameworks and dynamics on a macro scale. In line with Walton’s perspective, the crux of case studies lies in elucidating the causal connections between broader societal influences and specific results within distinct settings.

      4. Link to Abstract Ideas: Case-study research presents several benefits. It helps deepen comprehension and bridges theoretical concepts with practical applications through in-depth examination of specific cases. Furthermore, it enables the refinement of abstract ideas through real-life observations and established evidential criteria. Moreover, case studies play a pivotal role in theory development, as highlighted by Walton, who proposed that they frequently produce the most robust theoretical frameworks.

      5. Close Familiarity: Having a deep understanding of the subject, conducting thorough analysis involves immersing oneself in a significant amount of information about specific units or cases, covering either one period or multiple periods. This approach can result in the creation of innovative theories suited to complex scenarios or the improvement of existing theories to better address intricate situations.

      6. Cause and Effect Relationship: When researchers delve into specific instances, they unveil the intricate workings of social processes and causal connections, revealing the complexity of social existence. This heightened understanding facilitates the creation of thorough explanations capable of capturing the multifaceted essence of societal occurrences. Furthermore, case studies provide evidence that more accurately depicts intricate events or circumstances shaped by numerous factors unfolding over time and space. Additionally, case study research has the ability to encompass entire scenarios and multiple perspectives within its purview.

From the aforementioned description, it can be deduced that the case study approach involves in-depth investigation aimed at comprehensively examining individuals or phenomena. Nevertheless, detractors argue that studying a limited number of cases compromises the reliability or applicability of findings. Some assert that excessive focus on a single case may skew the results. Certain critics perceive case study research merely as a preliminary tool. Despite these critiques, researchers continue to successfully utilize the case study method in meticulously designed inquiries into real-life situations, issues, and challenges. Accounts of case studies spanning various fields are readily available in scholarly literature.

Case study research is distinguished by its capacity to explore intricate issues or topics, providing fresh insights that complement or enrich existing knowledge derived from previous studies. It places significant importance on scrutinizing particular events or circumstances within their wider contexts, enabling researchers to delve into relationships and subtleties with precision. This methodology has enjoyed widespread adoption across diverse domains for many years, especially by social scientists who exploit its qualitative nature to investigate real-world scenarios and pave the way for further theoretical developments and methodological refinements.

Robert K. Yin, a prominent authority in case study research, describes this method as involving empirical investigation into a contemporary phenomenon within its genuine setting, where the boundaries between the phenomenon and its context may be blurred. This approach relies on multiple sources of evidence to construct a comprehensive understanding.

Several influential scholars, including Robert E. Stake, Helen Simons, and Robert K. Yin himself, have made substantial contributions to the body of literature on case study research, furnishing insights and proposing methodologies for effective implementation. Drawing on their collective expertise, this overview suggests a structured approach comprising six pivotal steps indispensable for conducting any research based on case studies:

      Step 1. Determine the Research Questions: The initial step in conducting a case study involves establishing a clear research focus, which serves as a guiding framework throughout the investigation of a complex phenomenon or entity. This entails formulating relevant questions about the subject and defining the study’s purpose. Case studies typically examine programs, individuals, or groups, each intertwined with socio-political, historical, and personal factors, offering numerous avenues for inquiry and increasing the study’s complexity. Researchers employ various data collection methods to deeply explore the subject, generating substantial evidence to aid in understanding the case and addressing research questions.

Case study inquiries often center around “how” or “why” questions, probing specific events or conditions and their connections. To craft these questions effectively, researchers conduct a comprehensive literature review, identifying prior research and developing insightful inquiries about the issue. Clearly framing the questions allows for targeted examination of evidence and facilitates the selection of appropriate analytical methods. The literature review, along with defining the case study’s purpose and identifying its audience, shapes the study’s design, execution, and eventual sharing of findings.

      Step 2. Case selection and Determination of Data Gathering and Analysis Techniques: In the initial stages of conducting case study research, the investigator faces the task of carefully selecting real-life cases for in-depth examination and determining the appropriate tools and methodologies for data collection. In instances involving multiple cases, each case is individually analyzed, with their respective conclusions contributing to the overall study while maintaining their distinctiveness. Ensuring high-quality case studies entails meticulous case selection and thoughtful consideration of available research tools to bolster the study’s credibility. Discrimination during the selection process serves to delineate the boundaries of each case.

Researchers must make choices regarding whether to focus on unique cases or those considered representative, and they may opt for cases that reflect diverse geographic regions, sizes, or other pertinent parameters. Consistently referencing the study’s objectives helps steer the selection process, ensuring alignment between the chosen cases and evidence with the research inquiries. While the decision to select either multiple or single cases is pivotal, a case study may encompass various units of analysis, such as examining both an industry and a participating firm, thereby heightening complexity and data volume.

One of the significant advantages of the case study method lies in its utilization of diverse sources and techniques for data collection. Researchers predefine the evidence to collect and the analytical methods to employ in addressing the research queries. Data collection typically leans towards qualitative methods but may incorporate quantitative elements as well. Common instruments for data collection encompass surveys, interviews, document analysis, observation, and the scrutiny of physical artifacts.

The systematic and precise use of designated data collection tools is crucial for effective evidence gathering. Throughout the design phase, researchers must ensure the study’s robustness to uphold construct validity, internal validity, external validity, and reliability. Construct validity necessitates selecting suitable measures for the concepts under examination. Internal validity, particularly crucial in explanatory or causal studies, involves establishing causal relationships and requires multiple sources of evidence to validate findings. Researchers strive to establish a coherent chain of evidence. External validity evaluates the extent to which findings can be generalized beyond the immediate cases, with techniques such as cross-case and within-case examinations, along with literature review, aiding in this regard. Reliability pertains to the consistency and precision of measurement. Exemplary case study design entails well-documented procedures that yield consistent results upon replication.

      Step 3. Preparation of data collection: Given the vast amount of data amassed through case study research across diverse sources, it’s imperative to methodically structure this data to prevent overwhelming the researcher and veering off from the original research objectives. Adequate preparation entails the creation of databases for organizing, classifying, storing, and retrieving data for analysis in an efficient manner. Exemplary case studies incorporate comprehensive training programs for investigators, establish clear protocols and procedures prior to fieldwork, and conduct pilot studies to preemptively tackle potential obstacles and concerns. The investigator training regimen encompasses foundational study concepts, terminology, processes, and methodologies, ensuring their appropriate application. It underscores the importance of employing multiple data-gathering techniques for triangulation during analysis and delineates protocols for case study research, including deadlines, reporting formats, field note guidelines, and data collection procedures.

Investigators must possess adept listening skills to accurately interpret interview responses, pose insightful questions, and differentiate between factual information and interpretations in documents. They must be adaptable to real-world scenarios, maintaining flexibility and readiness for unforeseen developments. Grasping the study’s objectives and intricacies is crucial, as is being open to conflicting findings. Investigators must acknowledge the human dimension inherent in case studies and exhibit sensitivity to potential participant concerns or uncertainties.

Subsequent to investigator training, the final preparatory phase involves selecting a pilot site and conducting tests with each data collection method to identify and resolve potential issues. Researchers should anticipate challenges, institute measures for confidentiality, and be amenable to refining the research design to effectively address emerging inquiries.

     Step 4. Data collection in the Field: In the realm of research, it’s vital for the investigator to compile and arrange a wide range of evidence systematically and thoroughly. This evidence should be stored in formats conducive to easy reference and sorting, facilitating the identification of patterns and converging lines of inquiry. Throughout the research process, meticulous observation of the subject matter is crucial, aiming to pinpoint causal factors associated with the phenomenon under scrutiny. Adjustments to research methodologies or interview questions might be required as the study progresses, and any alterations should be meticulously recorded.

Well-executed case studies employ various tools such as field notes and databases to organize and store data, ensuring its accessibility for subsequent analysis. Field notes not only document factual information but also capture subjective impressions, inquiries, and the ongoing evolution of the research process. They record personal narratives and anecdotes that can enhance later reports and may serve as early indicators of bias or emerging patterns. Additionally, they aid in evaluating whether adjustments to the research approach are necessary based on ongoing observations. It’s crucial to maintain a clear separation between field notes and the primary data collected for analysis.

Establishing a coherent connection between the research question and the amassed evidence is paramount. Whether data is entered into databases or physically stored, it’s essential for the researcher to thoroughly document, categorize, and cross-reference all evidence to facilitate its efficient retrieval and examination throughout the duration of the study.

      Step 5. Analyze and Evaluate the Data: The researcher employs a range of methodologies to scrutinize raw data with the aim of establishing correlations between the subject of study and the outcomes based on the original research queries. They maintain openness to new insights and possibilities throughout this process. By utilizing the case study approach, which involves employing diverse data collection techniques and analytical methods, researchers can corroborate data to bolster the reliability of their findings and conclusions.

This analytical strategy urges researchers to surpass initial interpretations to refine the accuracy of their findings. Well-crafted case studies intentionally structure data in various formats to unveil fresh perspectives and actively seek contradictory data to test their analysis. Researchers organize, condense, and reframe data to address initial hypotheses or research objectives while cross-referencing facts and inconsistencies in narratives. Additionally, they may conduct focused, concise follow-up interviews to gather additional data to validate key observations or facts.

Specific techniques include arranging information into arrays, constructing category matrices, creating flowcharts or other visual aids, and quantifying event frequencies. Quantitative data is leveraged to validate and bolster qualitative data, particularly aiding in understanding the underlying rationale or theoretical frameworks governing relationships. Involving multiple investigators brings the benefit of diverse viewpoints and insights, bolstering confidence in findings when observations align. Conversely, conflicting viewpoints prompt researchers to delve deeper into their analysis.

Another method, the cross-case search for patterns, guards against premature conclusions by requiring a thorough exploration of data from various perspectives. This approach entails categorizing data types across all studied cases, with each researcher meticulously analyzing a specific data type. When patterns identified in one data type are corroborated by evidence from another, the findings gain credibility. Contradictory evidence triggers further inquiry to uncover underlying causes. Throughout, researchers approach the evidence objectively to derive analytical conclusions that address the original “how” and “why” research inquiries.

      Step 6. Preparation of the Report: Exemplary case studies excel in presenting complex data in a comprehensible manner, allowing readers to critically engage with the material and develop their own insights, independent of the researcher’s viewpoint. The main goal of these reports is to clarify intricate issues by immersing readers in a simulated experience. They employ accessible data presentation methods, encouraging readers to apply newfound knowledge to their own situations. Researchers ensure the report is supported by sufficient evidence, instilling confidence that all aspects of the problem are thoroughly explored. Moreover, they transparently define the case’s boundaries and address conflicting perspectives.

Various techniques are utilized in crafting such reports, including dedicating separate sections to individual cases or presenting them in a chronological narrative. Some researchers choose a storytelling approach. Throughout the report creation process, researchers meticulously review for gaps or oversights. They seek feedback from diverse audience groups, incorporating suggestions and making necessary revisions. Some proponents of case study research advocate involving journalists or participants in the review process.

Strengths of Case Study Method in Research

Case study research demonstrates several strengths:

• Concept Validation: Case studies help to elucidate and validate key concepts or variables, offering insight into their fundamental essence within abstract theory.
• Facilitating Learning and Discovery: They foster learning, discovery, and problem-solving, contributing to the development of new theories and the refinement of existing ones. They also explore interconnections among related ideas.
• Uncovering Causal Mechanisms: Case studies provide insight into the complex social processes and mechanisms through which one factor influences others, shedding light on underlying causal dynamics.
• Capturing Complexity and Process: They excel in depicting intricate events or situations, allowing for meticulous tracing of processes across time and space.
• Ensuring Accuracy: Case studies enable researchers to align measurements of abstract concepts with concrete standards and reliable real-life experiences.
• Holistic Exploration: They offer a comprehensive examination of entire situations or processes, accommodating multiple perspectives for a fuller understanding.

In summary, case studies provide detailed examination while encompassing a broader narrative. This is exemplified in Walton’s analysis of Owens Valley, California, where he aimed to convey a larger narrative through the microcosm of a single case. The study delved into the community’s struggle for control over its vital resource, water, and its fate, spanning over a century. Walton utilized various data sources, including firsthand observation, interviews, demographic data, maps, archival photographs, newspaper articles, historical documents, and official records.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Case Study Method

      The use of case studies is widely recognized as a valuable research approach in numerous industries and academic fields. While they offer many advantages, it’s important to acknowledge that they also come with certain limitations. Here are some advantages of utilizing the case study method:

Advantages:

      1. Intensive Study: The case study approach enables a thorough analysis of a particular subject, allowing for a deep exploration of its complexities and subtleties. By employing this method, researchers can thoroughly investigate events or individuals, leading to a comprehensive understanding that may be difficult to achieve through other means. This methodology is especially useful in situations where it’s not feasible to physically or ethically replicate the subject matter.

      2. Developing New Research: Case studies play a crucial role in sparking new directions for research. Through conducting in-depth analyses and gleaning insights, researchers can lay the groundwork for further exploration and progress in their fields. Many research projects have been inspired and propelled forward by the foundational work of case studies.

      3. Contradiction of Established Ideas: In numerous instances, theories come under scrutiny when confronted with real-life situations, such as case studies. Consider the case commonly known as the John/John case, which posed a challenge to the prevailing belief that gender and sexual identity were primarily influenced by environmental factors rather than biological predispositions. This particular case centered around twin boys who both underwent circumcision at the age of six months. However, due to a mishap during the procedure, one of the twins suffered irreversible damage to his genitalia. Distressed about their child’s future, the parents sought guidance from Dr. John Money, a proponent of the theory that upbringing played a greater role in determining gender identity than inherent biology.

Dr. Money proposed a controversial solution: the twin who had suffered damage, named Bruce, could be raised as a girl. Bruce underwent extensive surgeries, including genital reconstruction, and was given the name Brenda. Despite concerted efforts to align Brenda’s identity with the theory, the outcome proved far from successful. Subsequent developments revealed that Brenda experienced significant psychological distress and struggled with the gender identity assigned to her. The deception surrounding the perceived success of the procedure added another layer of ethical and moral complexity to the case.

Ultimately, the John/John case underscored the flaws in Dr. Money’s theory. It demonstrated that attempting to manipulate an individual’s gender identity solely through environmental factors was not only ineffective but also harmful. Despite being tarnished by deceit and ethical shortcomings, this case remains noteworthy as a cautionary narrative, emphasizing the critical importance of evaluating theories in light of empirical evidence.

      4. Giving New Insight: Case studies provide invaluable insights into phenomena that are typically beyond the reach of conventional methods. A striking example of this is found in the story of Sidney Bradford. Born blind, Bradford regained his sight at 52 through a corneal transplant, offering researchers a rare opportunity to explore the complexities of perception and movement post-surgery. His experience provided a unique window into how the sudden restoration of sight affects aspects like colour perception and spatial awareness in humans. Interestingly, Bradford opted to continue living and working with his eyes closed due to the overwhelming sensory overload caused by sight.

This inquiry not only deepened our understanding of the physiological aspects of vision but also yielded significant sociological implications. It illuminated the intricate interplay between societal norms and individual ethics, enriching our comprehension of human behavior within social frameworks.

Disadvantages:

      Following are disadvantages of case study method:

      1. Inability to Replicate: The Genie case study highlights the common hurdles encountered in replicating research efforts, which in turn obstructs validation. Without successful replication, the conclusions drawn from these studies are limited to the unique circumstances of the individuals involved. While there may be a temptation to extend the findings of the Genie study to similar cases of feral children, complete certainty can only be achieved through additional research and analysis.

      2. Researcher Bias: In the course of conducting a case study, authors might unknowingly inject biases into their work. These biases can take different shapes, including a partiality towards the subject, the methods used to gather data, or the interpretation of that data. Human subjectivity is a key factor here, as seen in documented instances of bias in the case studies and analyses of influential psychologists like Sigmund Freud. Furthermore, researchers may form strong connections with their study subjects or start empathizing with them, which can compromise objectivity and lead them away from the stance of a neutral observer.

      3. No Classification: It can be difficult to categorize results when the investigation is limited in scope. The capacity to derive broader implications becomes constrained when the research remains focused on a specific, restricted demographic. Nevertheless, these constraints might not be problematic, especially if the study’s goals do not emphasize generalizability.

      4. Time Intensive: Case studies frequently require a substantial commitment of time. Collecting data can prove to be a thorough and demanding undertaking, especially for inexperienced researchers unfamiliar with its intricacies. Constructing a comprehensive case study entails dedicating significant time and effort to both the development and analysis of the gathered data.

      5. Possibility of Errors: The case study method can be prone to inaccuracies due to memory gaps and subjective interpretations. Memory reconstruction, essential in constructing case histories, inherently carries the risk of introducing errors. Moreover, personal interpretations of past events can vary greatly among individuals, resulting in inconsistencies. Furthermore, people tend to prioritize certain aspects of their lives based on personal significance, which can lead to biased perspectives and possibly overshadow alternative viewpoints.

      6. Ethical Issues: Ethical dilemmas frequently arise in small-scale studies, prompting crucial inquiries into the point at which a study veers into unethical territory. The Genie case stands out as a prime example, sparking ongoing ethical debates. Moreover, concerns emerge regarding researchers’ potential biases when deeply immersed in a study, leading to questions about their willingness to disclose any unethical behavior they might encounter.

Case studies present a unique challenge due to their complexity, involving various data sources, multiple cases, and substantial datasets for analysis. Scholars from diverse disciplines employ the case study method to advance theories, challenge established ideas, shed light on complex situations, propose solutions, investigate phenomena, or provide detailed descriptions of specific subjects. The method’s strengths lie in its capacity to address real-world human scenarios and its accessibility through written reports, which enables findings to resonate with everyday experiences and enhances understanding of intricate real-life contexts.

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A case study is a research method that relies on a single case rather than a population or sample. When researchers focus on a single case, they can make detailed observations over a long period of time, something that cannot be done with large samples without costing a lot of money. Case studies are also useful in the early stages of research when the goal is to explore ideas, test, and perfect measurement instruments, and to prepare for a larger study. The case study research method is popular not just within ​the field of sociology, but also within the fields of anthropology, psychology, education, political science, clinical science, social work, and administrative science.

Overview of the Case Study Research Method

A case study is unique within the social sciences for its focus of study on a single entity, which can be a person, group or organization, event, action, or situation. It is also unique in that, as a focus of research, a case is chosen for specific reasons, rather than randomly , as is usually done when conducting empirical research. Often, when researchers use the case study method, they focus on a case that is exceptional in some way because it is possible to learn a lot about social relationships and social forces when studying those things that deviate from norms. In doing so, a researcher is often able, through their study, to test the validity of the social theory, or to create new theories using the grounded theory method .

The first case studies in the social sciences were likely conducted by Pierre Guillaume Frédéric Le Play, a 19th-century French sociologist and economist who studied family budgets. The method has been used in sociology, psychology, and anthropology since the early 20th century.

Within sociology, case studies are typically conducted with qualitative research methods . They are considered micro rather than macro in nature , and one cannot necessarily generalize the findings of a case study to other situations. However, this is not a limitation of the method, but a strength. Through a case study based on ethnographic observation and interviews, among other methods, sociologists can illuminate otherwise hard to see and understand social relations, structures, and processes. In doing so, the findings of case studies often stimulate further research.

Types and Forms of Case Studies

There are three primary types of case studies: key cases, outlier cases, and local knowledge cases.

• Key cases are those which are chosen because the researcher has ​a particular interest in it or the circumstances surrounding it.
• Outlier cases are those that are chosen because the case stands out from other events, organizations, or situations, for some reason, and social scientists recognize that we can learn a lot from those things that differ from the norm .
• Finally, a researcher may decide to conduct a local knowledge case study when they already have amassed a usable amount of information about a given topic, person, organization, or event, and so is well-poised to conduct a study of it.

Within these types, a case study may take four different forms: illustrative, exploratory, cumulative, and critical.

• Illustrative case studies are descriptive in nature and designed to shed light on a particular situation, set of circumstances, and the social relations and processes that are embedded in them. They are useful in bringing to light something about which most people are not aware of.
• Exploratory case studies are also often known as pilot studies . This type of case study is typically used when a researcher wants to identify research questions and methods of study for a large, complex study. They are useful for clarifying the research process, which can help a researcher make the best use of time and resources in the larger study that will follow it.
• Cumulative case studies are those in which a researcher pulls together already completed case studies on a particular topic. They are useful in helping researchers to make generalizations from studies that have something in common.
• Critical instance case studies are conducted when a researcher wants to understand what happened with a unique event and/or to challenge commonly held assumptions about it that may be faulty due to a lack of critical understanding.

Whatever type and form of case study you decide to conduct, it's important to first identify the purpose, goals, and approach for conducting methodologically sound research.

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Home » Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Case Study – Methods, Examples and Guide

Table of Contents

A case study is an in-depth examination of a single case or a few selected cases within a real-world context. Case study research is widely used across disciplines such as psychology, sociology, business, and education to explore complex phenomena in detail. Unlike other research methods that aim for broad generalizations, case studies offer an intensive understanding of a specific individual, group, event, or situation.

A case study is a research method that involves a detailed examination of a subject (the “case”) within its real-life context. Case studies are used to explore the causes of underlying principles, behaviors, or outcomes, providing insights into the nuances of the studied phenomena. This approach allows researchers to capture a wide array of factors and interactions that may not be visible in other methods, such as experiments or surveys.

Key Characteristics of Case Studies :

• Focus on a specific case, individual, or event.
• Provide in-depth analysis and contextual understanding.
• Useful for exploring new or complex phenomena.
• Generate rich qualitative data that contributes to theory building.

Types of Case Studies

Case studies can be classified into different types depending on their purpose and methodology. Common types include exploratory , descriptive , explanatory , intrinsic , and instrumental case studies.

1. Exploratory Case Study

Definition : An exploratory case study investigates an area where little is known. It helps to identify questions, variables, and hypotheses for future research.

Characteristics :

• Often used in the early stages of research.
• Focuses on discovery and hypothesis generation.
• Helps clarify research questions.

Example : Examining how remote work affects team dynamics in an organization that has recently transitioned to a work-from-home model.

2. Descriptive Case Study

Definition : A descriptive case study provides a detailed account of a particular case, describing it within its context. The goal is to provide a complete and accurate depiction without necessarily exploring underlying causes.

• Focuses on describing the case in detail.
• Provides comprehensive data to paint a clear picture of the phenomenon.
• Helps understand “what” happened without delving into “why.”

Example : Documenting the process and outcomes of a corporate restructuring within a company, describing the actions taken and their immediate effects.

3. Explanatory Case Study

Definition : An explanatory case study aims to explain the cause-and-effect relationships of a particular case. It focuses on understanding “how” or “why” something happened.

• Useful for causal analysis.
• Aims to provide insights into mechanisms and processes.
• Often used in social sciences and psychology to study behavior and interactions.

Example : Investigating why a school’s test scores improved significantly after implementing a new teaching method.

4. Intrinsic Case Study

Definition : An intrinsic case study focuses on a unique or interesting case, not because of what it represents but because of its intrinsic value. The researcher’s interest lies in understanding the case itself.

• Driven by the researcher’s interest in the particular case.
• Not meant to generalize findings to broader contexts.
• Focuses on gaining a deep understanding of the specific case.

Example : Studying a particularly successful start-up to understand its founder’s unique leadership style.

5. Instrumental Case Study

Definition : An instrumental case study examines a particular case to gain insights into a broader issue. The case serves as a tool for understanding something more general.

• The case itself is not the focus; rather, it is a vehicle for exploring broader principles or theories.
• Helps apply findings to similar situations or cases.
• Useful for theory testing or development.

Example : Studying a well-known patient’s therapy process to understand the general principles of effective psychological treatment.

Methods of Conducting a Case Study

Case studies can involve various research methods to collect data and analyze the case comprehensively. The primary methods include interviews , observations , document analysis , and surveys .

1. Interviews

Definition : Interviews allow researchers to gather in-depth information from individuals involved in the case. These interviews can be structured, semi-structured, or unstructured, depending on the study’s goals.

• Develop a list of open-ended questions aligned with the study’s objectives.
• Conduct interviews with individuals directly or indirectly involved in the case.
• Record, transcribe, and analyze the responses to identify key themes.

Example : Interviewing employees, managers, and clients in a company to understand the effects of a new business strategy.

2. Observations

Definition : Observations involve watching and recording behaviors, actions, and events within the case’s natural setting. This method provides first-hand data on interactions, routines, and environmental factors.

• Define the behaviors and interactions to observe.
• Conduct observations systematically, noting relevant details.
• Analyze patterns and connections in the observed data.

Example : Observing interactions between teachers and students in a classroom to evaluate the effectiveness of a teaching method.

3. Document Analysis

Definition : Document analysis involves reviewing existing documents related to the case, such as reports, emails, memos, policies, or archival records. This provides historical and contextual data that can complement other data sources.

• Identify relevant documents that offer insights into the case.
• Systematically review and code the documents for themes or categories.
• Compare document findings with data from interviews and observations.

Example : Analyzing company policies, performance reports, and emails to study the process of implementing a new organizational structure.

Definition : Surveys are structured questionnaires administered to a group of people involved in the case. Surveys are especially useful for gathering quantitative data that supports or complements qualitative findings.

• Design survey questions that align with the research goals.
• Distribute the survey to a sample of participants.
• Analyze the survey responses, often using statistical methods.

Example : Conducting a survey among customers to measure satisfaction levels after a service redesign.

Case Study Guide: Step-by-Step Process

Step 1: define the research questions.

• Clearly outline what you aim to understand or explain.
• Define specific questions that the case study will answer, such as “What factors led to X outcome?”

Step 2: Select the Case(s)

• Choose a case (or cases) that are relevant to your research question.
• Ensure that the case is feasible to study, accessible, and likely to yield meaningful data.

Step 3: Determine the Data Collection Methods

• Decide which methods (e.g., interviews, observations, document analysis) will best capture the information needed.
• Consider combining multiple methods to gather rich, well-rounded data.

Step 4: Collect Data

• Gather data using your chosen methods, following ethical guidelines such as informed consent and confidentiality.
• Take comprehensive notes and record interviews or observations when possible.

Step 5: Analyze the Data

• Organize the data into themes, patterns, or categories.
• Use qualitative or quantitative analysis methods, depending on the nature of the data.
• Compare findings across data sources to identify consistencies and discrepancies.

Step 6: Interpret Findings

• Draw conclusions based on the analysis, relating the findings to your research questions.
• Consider alternative explanations and assess the generalizability of your findings.

Step 7: Report Results

• Write a detailed report that presents your findings and explains their implications.
• Discuss the limitations of the case study and potential directions for future research.

Examples of Case Study Applications

• Objective : To understand the success factors of a high-growth tech company.
• Methods : Interviews with key executives, analysis of internal reports, and customer satisfaction surveys.
• Outcome : Insights into unique management practices and customer engagement strategies.
• Objective : To examine the impact of project-based learning on student engagement.
• Methods : Observations in classrooms, interviews with teachers, and analysis of student performance data.
• Outcome : Evidence of increased engagement and enhanced critical thinking skills among students.
• Objective : To explore the effectiveness of a new mental health intervention.
• Methods : Interviews with patients, assessment of clinical outcomes, and reviews of therapist notes.
• Outcome : Identification of factors that contribute to successful treatment outcomes.
• Objective : To assess the impact of urban development on local wildlife.
• Methods : Observations of wildlife, analysis of environmental data, and interviews with residents.
• Outcome : Findings showing the effects of urban sprawl on species distribution and biodiversity.

Case studies are valuable for in-depth exploration and understanding of complex phenomena within their real-life contexts. By using methods such as interviews, observations, document analysis, and surveys, researchers can obtain comprehensive data and generate insights that are specific to the case. Whether exploratory, descriptive, or explanatory, case studies offer unique opportunities for understanding and discovering practical applications for theories.

• Baxter, P., & Jack, S. (2008). Qualitative Case Study Methodology: Study Design and Implementation for Novice Researchers . The Qualitative Report, 13(4), 544–559.
• Creswell, J. W., & Poth, C. N. (2017). Qualitative Inquiry and Research Design: Choosing Among Five Approaches (4th ed.). SAGE Publications.
• Stake, R. E. (1995). The Art of Case Study Research . SAGE Publications.
• Yin, R. K. (2018). Case Study Research and Applications: Design and Methods (6th ed.). SAGE Publications.
• Thomas, G. (2016). How to Do Your Case Study (2nd ed.). SAGE Publications.

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Exploring Real-life Contexts: Types and Applications of Case Studies

Have you ever wondered how researchers uncover the intricate details of real-world phenomena? They often use a powerful tool called the case study . This method is like a high-resolution camera, zooming in on a subject to capture its essence in vivid detail. Case studies allow researchers to explore, explain, or describe a subject within its real-life context, revealing insights that might otherwise be lost in broader surveys or experiments. But not all case studies are created equal. They come in different types, each with a unique focus and purpose. Let’s dive into the world of case studies and discover how they help us understand complex issues one case at a time.

Table of Contents

• What is a case study?
• Types of case studies
• Exploratory case studies
• Explanatory case studies
• Descriptive case studies
• Conducting a case study
• Define and select the case
• Develop a theoretical framework
• Collect data
• Analyze and interpret data
• Report findings
• Applications in various fields
• Challenges and considerations

What is a case study? 🔗

At its core, a case study is an in-depth investigation of a single person, group, event, or community. It’s a research strategy that unpacks the dynamics of a case within its natural environment, often employing multiple sources of evidence. Case studies are particularly useful when the boundaries between the phenomenon being studied and its context are not clearly evident. They can offer a rich understanding of a subject, providing a nuanced perspective that quantitative methods may not capture.

Types of case studies 🔗

Case studies are not a one-size-fits-all approach. Depending on the research question and objectives, a case study can be classified into three main types: exploratory, explanatory, and descriptive. Each serves a distinct purpose, and choosing the right type is critical for achieving the research goals.

Exploratory case studies 🔗

Setting the stage for further research: Exploratory case studies are like the scouts of the research world. They are conducted when a researcher has identified a potential area of study but needs more information before developing a detailed research plan. These case studies help to identify questions, select measurement constructs, and develop hypotheses.

• When to use: Ideal in the early stages of a research project.
• Methods: Typically involves a flexible research design that can adapt as understanding deepens.
• Examples: A preliminary study of a start-up’s organizational culture or an initial look at a community affected by a new policy.

Explanatory case studies 🔗

Unraveling complexities: Explanatory case studies dig deeper into the causes and effects within a case. They are instrumental when a situation is too complex to be understood through a simple cause-and-effect analysis, and they typically address ‘how’ and ‘why’ questions.

• When to use: Suitable for clarifying complex interventions or processes.
• Methods: May employ longitudinal studies to observe outcomes over time.
• Examples: Investigating the success factors of a long-standing social program or analyzing the failure of a major construction project.

Descriptive case studies 🔗

Painting a detailed picture: Descriptive case studies are aptly named for their focus on describing the characteristics of a case within its context. These studies follow a structured protocol to ensure comprehensive coverage of all relevant aspects of the case.

• When to use: Ideal for providing a complete, systematic description of a phenomenon.
• Methods: Involves a detailed and in-depth approach, often with predefined data collection methods.
• Examples: A detailed account of a company’s approach to corporate social responsibility or the stages of development in a community-led conservation effort.

Conducting a case study 🔗

Embarking on a case study research project is not a decision to be taken lightly. It requires a systematic approach and a clear understanding of the research question. Here are the typical steps a researcher would follow:

Define and select the case 🔗

The first step is to identify and define the case that will be studied. This could be based on a unique characteristic, a representative quality, or a particular relevance to the research question. Once the case is selected, the researcher needs to explain why this case is important and what it can reveal about the larger issue.

Develop a theoretical framework 🔗

Next, a theoretical framework helps to guide the research. This involves reviewing the literature, identifying relevant theories, and formulating hypotheses or questions that the case study will address. This framework provides a lens through which the data will be interpreted.

Collect data 🔗

Data collection is a critical phase in case study research. Researchers may use interviews, observations, documents, and other sources to gather a full picture of the case. The data should be collected systematically and ethically, with a clear record of all sources and methods.

Analyze and interpret data 🔗

Once the data is collected, the researcher must organize, sift through, and make sense of it. This involves identifying patterns, crafting narratives, and drawing conclusions. The researcher must remain open to where the data leads, avoiding preconceived notions or biases.

Report findings 🔗

The final step is to communicate the findings to a broader audience. This involves crafting a narrative that is compelling and accessible, with clear explanations of how the data led to the conclusions. Visual aids, such as charts or diagrams, can help illustrate complex ideas.

Applications in various fields 🔗

Case studies are versatile and can be applied across numerous disciplines. In business, they can shed light on management practices or corporate strategies. In education, they can illustrate pedagogical approaches. In social sciences, they can offer insights into societal issues. And in health sciences, they can help understand patient experiences or treatment outcomes.

Challenges and considerations 🔗

While case studies are a valuable research method, they come with their own set of challenges. The depth of analysis required can be time-consuming and resource-intensive. Additionally, the findings from a single case may not be generalizable to other cases. Researchers must be careful to acknowledge these limitations and avoid overgeneralizations.

Conclusion 🔗

Case studies are a window into the complexities of real-life situations. They offer a depth of understanding that is invaluable for researchers across various fields. By selecting the appropriate type of case study and following a rigorous methodology, researchers can uncover the nuances and richness of any phenomenon they choose to explore.

What do you think? How might the insights gained from a well-conducted case study influence decisions in your field of interest? Can you think of a situation where a case study would be the ideal research approach?

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Research Methodologies & Methods

1 Logic of Inquiry in Social Research

• A Science of Society
• Comte’s Ideas on the Nature of Sociology
• Observation in Social Sciences
• Logical Understanding of Social Reality

2 Empirical Approach

• Empirical Approach
• Rules of Data Collection
• Cultural Relativism
• Problems Encountered in Data Collection
• Difference between Common Sense and Science
• What is Ethical?
• What is Normal?
• Understanding the Data Collected
• Managing Diversities in Social Research
• Problematising the Object of Study
• Conclusion: Return to Good Old Empirical Approach

3 Diverse Logic of Theory Building

• Concern with Theory in Sociology
• Concepts: Basic Elements of Theories
• Why Do We Need Theory?
• Hypothesis Description and Experimentation
• Controlled Experiment
• Designing an Experiment
• How to Test a Hypothesis
• Sensitivity to Alternative Explanations
• Rival Hypothesis Construction
• The Use and Scope of Social Science Theory
• Theory Building and Researcher’s Values

4 Theoretical Analysis

• Premises of Evolutionary and Functional Theories
• Critique of Evolutionary and Functional Theories
• Turning away from Functionalism
• What after Functionalism
• Post-modernism
• Trends other than Post-modernism

5 Issues of Epistemology

• Some Major Concerns of Epistemology
• Rationalism
• Phenomenology: Bracketing Experience

6 Philosophy of Social Science

• Foundations of Science
• Science, Modernity, and Sociology
• Rethinking Science
• Crisis in Foundation

7 Positivism and its Critique

• Heroic Science and Origin of Positivism
• Early Positivism
• Consolidation of Positivism
• Critiques of Positivism

8 Hermeneutics

• Methodological Disputes in the Social Sciences
• Tracing the History of Hermeneutics
• Hermeneutics and Sociology
• Philosophical Hermeneutics
• The Hermeneutics of Suspicion
• Phenomenology and Hermeneutics

9 Comparative Method

• Relationship with Common Sense; Interrogating Ideological Location
• The Historical Context
• Elements of the Comparative Approach

10 Feminist Approach

• Features of the Feminist Method
• Feminist Methods adopt the Reflexive Stance
• Feminist Discourse in India

11 Participatory Method

• Delineation of Key Features

12 Types of Research

• Basic and Applied Research
• Descriptive and Analytical Research
• Empirical and Exploratory Research
• Quantitative and Qualitative Research
• Explanatory (Causal) and Longitudinal Research
• Experimental and Evaluative Research
• Participatory Action Research

13 Methods of Research

• Evolutionary Method
• Comparative Method
• Historical Method
• Personal Documents

14 Elements of Research Design

• Structuring the Research Process

15 Sampling Methods and Estimation of Sample Size

• Classification of Sampling Methods
• Sample Size

16 Measures of Central Tendency

• Relationship between Mean, Mode, and Median
• Choosing a Measure of Central Tendency

17 Measures of Dispersion and Variability

• The Variance
• The Standard Deviation
• Coefficient of Variation

18 Statistical Inference- Tests of Hypothesis

• Statistical Inference
• Tests of Significance

19 Correlation and Regression

• Correlation
• Method of Calculating Correlation of Ungrouped Data
• Method Of Calculating Correlation Of Grouped Data

20 Survey Method

• Rationale of Survey Research Method
• History of Survey Research
• Defining Survey Research
• Sampling and Survey Techniques
• Operationalising Survey Research Tools
• Advantages and Weaknesses of Survey Research

21 Survey Design

• Preliminary Considerations
• Stages / Phases in Survey Research
• Formulation of Research Question
• Survey Research Designs
• Sampling Design

22 Survey Instrumentation

• Techniques/Instruments for Data Collection
• Questionnaire Construction
• Issues in Designing a Survey Instrument

23 Survey Execution and Data Analysis

• Problems and Issues in Executing Survey Research
• Data Analysis
• Ethical Issues in Survey Research

24 Field Research – I

• History of Field Research
• Ethnography
• Theme Selection
• Gaining Entry in the Field
• Key Informants
• Participant Observation

25 Field Research – II

• Interview its Types and Process
• Feminist and Postmodernist Perspectives on Interviewing
• Narrative Analysis
• Interpretation
• Case Study and its Types
• Life Histories
• Oral History
• PRA and RRA Techniques

26 Reliability, Validity and Triangulation

• Concepts of Reliability and Validity
• Three Types of “Reliability”
• Working Towards Reliability
• Procedural Validity
• Field Research as a Validity Check
• Method Appropriate Criteria
• Triangulation
• Ethical Considerations in Qualitative Research

27 Qualitative Data Formatting and Processing

• Qualitative Data Processing and Analysis
• Description
• Classification
• Making Connections
• Theoretical Coding
• Qualitative Content Analysis

28 Writing up Qualitative Data

• Problems of Writing Up
• Grasp and Then Render
• “Writing Down” and “Writing Up”
• Write Early
• Writing Styles
• First Draft

29 Using Internet and Word Processor

• What is Internet and How Does it Work?
• Internet Services
• Searching on the Web: Search Engines
• Accessing and Using Online Information
• Online Journals and Texts
• Statistical Reference Sites
• Data Sources
• Uses of E-mail Services in Research

30 Using SPSS for Data Analysis Contents

• Introduction
• Starting and Exiting SPSS
• Creating a Data File
• Univariate Analysis
• Bivariate Analysis

31 Using SPSS in Report Writing

• Why to Use SPSS
• Working with SPSS Output
• Copying SPSS Output to MS Word Document

32 Tabulation and Graphic Presentation- Case Studies

• Structure for Presentation of Research Findings
• Data Presentation: Editing, Coding, and Transcribing
• Case Studies
• Qualitative Data Analysis and Presentation through Software
• Types of ICT used for Research

33 Guidelines to Research Project Assignment

• Overview of Research Methodologies and Methods (MSO 002)
• Research Project Objectives
• Preparation for Research Project
• Stages of the Research Project
• Supervision During the Research Project
• Submission of Research Project
• Methodology for Evaluating Research Project

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Case Study

A case study is where sociologists investigate in great detail a particular individual or group, as opposed to trying to gather a representative sample from the target population. Normally a case study will feature methodological pluralism (using a range of research methods to achieve triangulation ) and they are often longitudinal studies (the researcher regularly revisiting the case over a long period of time).

Advantages of case studies include the ability to gather qualitative and quantitative data and the comparative lack of expense compared with attempting the same research with a large sample.

Disadvantages would be the inability to ensure the reliability of the data and the extent to which it could be generalisable.

An example of a Case Study is Paul Willis’ ‘Learning to Labour’ which involved an in-depth study of a group of male students from a school in Wolverhampton. Another is Heelas and Woodhead’s case study of spirituality in Kendal (the Kendal Project).

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Overview of ‘University’s not for Me – I’m a Nike Person' by Archer et al

Study Notes

Research Methods: Questionnaires

Research design: choice of research method, research methods - "card drop" activity.

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